Boarding Schools

By Ameesha Pani

Federal Indian Boarding Schools emerged from the U.S. government’s colonial desire to reallocate native lands, ‘educate’, and civilize Indians by pushing them towards a Western lifestyle. The Indian Civilization Act (1819) endorsed the creation of boarding schools for Indian education (Lonetree). Soonafter, Congress passed the Dawes Act (1887), which allowed the government to redistribute communal Indian lands to individuals within each tribe. Excess lands the government withheld were then used to fund students’ placement in boarding schools. Indians lost ninety-million acres of arable land through this process, and their forced transition to isolated living shattered their sense of community. By stripping them of their lands and communities, Indians were left weakened and dependent on the government for the sustenance their diminished lands could no longer provide (“Dawes Act (1887)”). In this vulnerable state, the government imposed their assimilationist agenda upon Indian communities. As a result, between 1819 and 1969, Alaska Natives, American Indians, and Native Hawaiians throughout the U.S. were enrolled in 1 of 408 Federal Indian Boarding Schools. (Haaland Preface). The U.S. Government believed that a boarding school “education” would solve the “Indian problem;” therefore, the question that remains: were Federal Indian Boarding Schools used to genocide Indigenous children?

Upon entering boarding schools, one’s indigeneity/‘Indianness’- culture, religion, and language- was removed. Indian students' hair was cut into a tight bob, their soft moccasins switched out for hard shoes, and native languages were replaced with English. Yankton Dakota Sioux student Zitkala-Ša

recalls being “dragged out [from under the bed]... [and] kicking and scratching wildly.” She labeled her hair being cut in the White’s Manual Labor Institute as the moment she “lost [her] spirit” (Ša 47). Students in boarding schools were also denied the right to practice their cultures and religions and instead were forced into low-wage jobs as seamstresses and laborers. Under the guise of education, government-funded boarding schools' emphasis on Western presentation and low-wage jobs contributed to assimilating Indians into Western society while keeping them within a low socioeconomic class. Because of this, students suffered intensely even after leaving boarding schools (Haaland, 59).

Negative boarding school experiences caused students and their descendants to suffer intergenerationally. As a result of their traumatic experiences in boarding schools, PTSD and unresolved grief in addition to a 44% increase in chronic physical health problems plague homes throughout Indian Country today. Former Indian students are three times more likely to suffer from cancer and tuberculosis, and they have a 95% chance of developing high cholesterol levels. Additionally, severed from their families at formative ages, students raised without nurturement rear their children in the same harsh manner. Thus, the boarding school system has harmed multiple generations of Indians beginning with its attendees. (Haaland 88).

Preface

While working on this project, I thought about several factors. Having previously researched and written about the Federal Indian Boarding School system, I felt compelled to dig deeper. I wanted to unearth the stories of individual students; one’s whose identities had been reduced to student files cataloged in illegible print. Learning from Hartman’s remarkable theory piece “Venus in Two Acts,” I wished to present a piece of counter-history. That is, my goal for this project has been to “oppose...dominant narratives and prevailing modes of historical thought and methods of research” (Hartman). Counter-history comes in various forms: play-acting, art, and music to name a few. Drawn to poetry, I have provided and anthology of stories and voices from the boarding school era. In doing so, I remained cognizant that my piece of counter-history cannot change the events that occurred in Federal Indian Boarding Schools. Thus, the foreclosed poems are simply my attempt to reject the systematic and historical reduction of individuals.

For the purpose of this project, I shift from in-text citations to superscripts that correspond with sources within my “References” section. Although in-text citations are particularly favorable within prose, superscripts will make my poetry easier to read. For this reason, I have both “Works Consulted” and “References” pages.

Into the mouth of a bird

“The young of the wild bird, though born in captivity, naturally retains the instincts of freedom so strong in the parent and beats the bars to secure it, while after several generations of captivity the young bird will return to the cage after a brief period of freedom. So with the Indian child. The first wild redskin placed in the school chafes at the loss of freedom and longs to return to his wildwood home. His offspring retains some of the habits acquired by the parent. These habits receive fresh development in each successive generation, fixing new rules of conduct, different aspirations, and greater desires to be in touch with the dominant race.”

Touch,
the young
bird of several generations

returns beat the bars
of the cage,
the school:
captivity.

Secure within his wildwood home

parents chafe at fresh development,

dominant rules.
Race to fix offspring

secure new habits

of freedom
of conduct.

Touch the young bird

and he will return
to his wildwood home.

The promised land

“I had arrived in the wonderful land of rosy skies, but I was not happy, as I had thought I should be. My long travels and the bewildering sights had exhausted me. I fell asleep, having deep, tired sobs. My tears were left to dry themselves in streaks, because neither my aunt nor my mother was near to wipe them away”[2]

And they told her:
“the promised land!”
Land of the apples
the paleface,
and yet she could find no fruit

in a land so barren.

A heart pulsates as tears drip-
down the youth of a cheek,
a cheek, metaphorical as the barren land
-scape of an eyes;
fruitless. The embrace of home tickles the
mind with guile- maneuvering through its clouded spaces.

A valiant attempt to

avoid capture.
Evade.
The longing of its being.
The conscious pleads-
with selfish reason: bestowal of seed unto the mind. In which the cheek-

although metaphorical can begin to dry.

The metamorphosis of a butterfly

“...Their long tangled hair is shorn close, and then they are stripped of their Indian garb thoroughly washed, and clad, in civilized clothing. The metamorphosis is wonderful, and the little sav**e seems quite proud of [their] appearance.” [3]

Your metamorphosis:

her destruction.

Pluck her–
from the belly of the birch
she nestles deep in her chrysalis:

home, you push
firmly
exoskeletal structure
wrapped
around her shoulders
her mothers cloak.
Tear away the soft silk cover.

And?

And you split her.
Shingle her thinning scales, exposed flesh

bears broken butterflies:
unskilled warriors

her past bleeds
you drown
in her mothers teachings:

metamorphosis is wonderful.

“Our mothers had taught us that only unskilled warriors who were captured had their hair shingled by the enemy. Among our people, short hair was worn by mourners, and shingled hair by cowards!/ We discussed our fate some moments, and when Judéwin said, ‘We have to submit, because they are strong,’ I rebelled./ ‘No, I will not submit! I will struggle first!”[4]

What the Mescalero boys saw

HEADLINE NEWS: INDIAN CHILDREN ARE NOW COMING INTO BOARDING SCHOOLS MUCH TOO YOUNG FOR HEAVY INSTITUTIONAL LABOR [5]

HASKELL BOYS.

MAKE! HASKELL BOYS MESCALERO BOYS

BUILD. SAW.

WINNEBAGO GIRLS MESCALERO BOYS HASKELL BOYS

MAKE! SAW. LAY.

MESCALERO BOYS SAW WINNEBAGO GIRLS

70,000 FT2 OF LUMBER SEW

750 GARMENTS

600 FT2 OF CEMENT SIDEWALK

103 BODIES.

770 FARM SACKS.

INDIAN CHILDREN

MAKE

HEADLINE NEWS: THE FEDERAL INDIAN BOARDING SCHOOL SYSTEM RELIES ON CHILD LABOR TO COMPENSATE FOR POOR CONDITIONS OF SCHOOL FACILITIES.

Mashed Turnips

A mischievous spirit of revenge possessed me....It was noon, and steaming dishes were hastily carried into the dining-room. I hated turnips, and their odor which came from the brown jar was offensive to me. With fire in my heart, I took the wooden tool that the paleface woman held out to me. I stood upon a step, and, grasping the handle with both hands, I bent in hot rage over the turnips.... I renewed my energy; and as I sent the masher into the bottom of the jar, I felt a satisfying sensation that the weight of my body had gone into it./ As I sat eating my dinner, and saw that no turnips were served, I whooped in my heart for having once asserted the rebellion within me.” [6]

And in the jar
she stared, reflections rippling:

a language
so great

with power,

she laughed.
Hot rage breaks glass.

Spirit of revenge,

possess her play

smash the jar and reflections will spill:

turnips on the floor.

Hand her the spoon and she will crush you[r]

language
your reflection.

“...The language of the greatest, most powerful, and enterprising nationalities beneath the sun.”[7]

FILE No. En. 53[8]

ENGLISH NAME Stephen Murray of AGENCY Rosebud S.D.

I carry mail between Dartmouth and Rosebud1

I believe

your son

ENGLISH NAME Wallace Murray [10]

NATION Sioux

BAND Minneconjou Lte

AGE 20

was RECOMMENDED he [11]

PURSUE ACADEMIC WORK IN THE

3 year vocation grade

AND THE VOCATIONAL COURSE OF

Agriculture.

yet he

ARRIVED: 9-9-17

and he

DEPARTED: 9-6-18?

FILE No. En. 365 [12]

Works Consulted


Chabitnoy, Abigail. How to Dress a Fish. Wesleyan University Press, 2019.

Child, Brenda J. Boarding School Seasons: American Indian Families, 1900-1940. University of Nebraska Press, 2012.

“Dawes Act (1887).” National Archives and Records Administration, National Archives and Records Administration, www.archives.gov/milestone-documents/dawes-act. Accessed 4 Mar. 2024.

“Four Sioux Students, c.1879.” Four Sioux Students, c.1879 | Carlisle Indian School Digital Resource Center, carlisleindian.dickinson.edu/images/four-sioux-students-c1879. Accessed 10 Mar. 2024.

Hartman, Saidiya. “Venus in Two acts.” Unequal Sisters, 10 July 2023, pp. 27–37, https://doi.org/10.4324/9781003053989-5.

“INDIAN INDUSTRIAL SCHOOL, CARLISLE, PA., AUGUST, 1885. NO. 1.” The Morning Star, Aug. 1885, p. 3.

“Images.” Images | Carlisle Indian School Digital Resource Center, carlisleindian.dickinson.edu/images. Accessed 12 Mar. 2024.

Lonetree, Hope MacDonald. “Healing from the Trauma of Federal Residential Indian Boarding Schools.” Administration for Children & Families, Accessed 20 February 2024. www.acf.hhs.gov/blog/2021/11/healing-trauma-federal-residential-indian-boarding-schools#:~ :text=The%20Indian%20Civilization%20Act%20of%201819%20was%20enacted%20for%20 the,emotional%20suffering%2C%20physical%20illness%2C%20immediate.

Newland, Bryan. “Home | Indian Affairs.” Federal Indian Boarding School Initiative Investigative Report, United States Department of the Interior, May 2022, www.bia.gov/sites/default/files/dup/inline-files/bsi_investigative_report_may_2022_508.pdf. Accessed February 21 2024.

“Nara_1327_b118_4813.PDF.” Carlisle Indian School Digital Resource Center, carlisleindian.dickinson.edu/sites/all/files/docs-ephemera/NARA_1327_b118_4813.pdf. Accessed 8 Mar. 2024.

“NARA_1328_b002_c00h_0117.” Carlisle Indian School Digital Resource Center, carlisleindian.dickinson.edu/sites/default/files/docs-ephemera/NARA_1328_b002_c00h_0117.pdf. Accessed 25 Feb. 2024.

Ša, Zitkala. “Americanindian Stories.” American Indian Stories., Hayworth Publishing House, 1921, https://digital.library.upenn.edu/women/zitkala-sa/stories/stories.html. Accessed February 20 2024.

“S.1723: Truth and Healing Commission on Indian Boarding School Policies Act.” The National Native American Boarding School Healing Coalition, https://boardingschoolhealing.org/truthcommission/. Accessed 21 February 2024.

Soldier, Layli Long. Whereas. Graywolf Press, 2017.

“Wallace Murray Student File.” Carlisle Indian School Digital Resource, Dickinson College, carlisleindian.dickinson.edu/sites/default/files/docs-ephemera/NARA_1327_b128_f5098.pdf. Accessed 8 Mar. 2024.

References

  1. Newland, Bryan. “Home | Indian Affairs.” Federal Indian Boarding School Initiative Investigative Report, United States Department of the Interior, May 2022, www.bia.gov/sites/default/files/dup/inline-files/bsi_investigative_report_may_2022_508.pdf. Accessed February 21 2024, pp. 51-52.

  2. Ša, Zitkala. “Americanindian Stories.” American Indian Stories., Hayworth Publishing House, 1921, https://digital.library.upenn.edu/women/zitkala-sa/stories/stories.html. Accessed February 20 2024, pp. 47.

  3. Newland, Bryan. “Home | Indian Affairs.” Federal Indian Boarding School Initiative Investigative Report, United States Department of the Interior, May 2022, www.bia.gov/sites/default/files/dup/inline-files/bsi_investigative_report_may_2022_508.pdf. Accessed February 21 2024, pp. 54.

  4. Ša, Zitkala. “Americanindian Stories.” American Indian Stories., Hayworth Publishing House, 1921, https://digital.library.upenn.edu/women/zitkala-sa/stories/stories.html. Accessed February 20 2024, pp. 47.

  5. Child, Brenda J. “Chapter 2. Working for the School.” Boarding School Seasons: American Indian Families, 1900-1940. University of Nebraska Press, 2012.

  6. Ša, Zitkala. “Americanindian Stories.” American Indian Stories., Hayworth Publishing House, 1921, https://digital.library.upenn.edu/women/zitkala-sa/stories/stories.html. Accessed February 20 2024, pp. 47.

  7. Newland, Bryan. “Home | Indian Affairs.” Federal Indian Boarding School Initiative Investigative Report, United States Department of the Interior, May 2022, www.bia.gov/sites/default/files/dup/inline-files/bsi_investigative_report_may_2022_508.pdf. Accessed February 21 2024, pp. 52.

  8. “NARA_1328_b002_c00h_0117.” Carlisle Indian School Digital Resource Center, carlisleindian.dickinson.edu/sites/default/files/docs-ephemera/NARA_1328_b002_c00h_0117.pd f. Accessed 25 Feb. 2024.

  9. “Four Sioux Students, c.1879.” Four Sioux Students, c.1879 | Carlisle Indian School Digital Resource Center, carlisleindian.dickinson.edu/images/four-sioux-students-c1879. Accessed 10 Mar. 2024.

  10. “Wallace Murray Student File.” Carlisle Indian School Digital Resource, Dickinson College, carlisleindian.dickinson.edu/sites/default/files/docs-ephemera/NARA_1327_b128_f5098.pdf. Accessed 8 Mar. 2024.

  11. “Nara_1327_b118_4813.PDF.” Carlisle Indian School Digital Resource Center, carlisleindian.dickinson.edu/sites/all/files/docs-ephemera/NARA_1327_b118_4813.pdf. Accessed 8 Mar. 2024.

  12. “Wallace Murray Student File.” Carlisle Indian School Digital Resource, Dickinson College, carlisleindian.dickinson.edu/sites/default/files/docs-ephemera/NARA_1327_b128_f5098.pdf. Accessed 8 Mar. 2024.

  13. “INDIAN INDUSTRIAL SCHOOL, CARLISLE, PA., AUGUST, 1885. NO. 1.” The Morning Star, Aug. 1885, p. 3.